That sounds like a simple question but the answer is very complex. I recommend you look at old technology that was more simple and easy to understand, and then start moving forward. Look at the S100 bus and how simple 8 bit microprocessors such as the Z80 and 6502 did IO.
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That sounds like a simple question but the answer is very complex. I recommend you look at old technology that was more simple and easy to understand, and then start moving forward. Look at the S100 bus and how simple 8 bit microprocessors such as the Z80 and 6502 did IO.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-100_bus
https://z80journal.wordpress.com/2015/10/07/z80-io-space/
Then with x86 PC age, look at the ISA bus first https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_Standard_Architecture
and later on, the PCI bus (should I even mention Microchannel?) : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_PCI
Another direction for computer IO might be to learn about the Raspberry Pi GPIO interface: https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/all